POLICY AND POLICY ISSUES IN SUSTAINABLE AFFORESTATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A CASE OF ZIMBABWE
Keywords:
Afforestation, policy, sustainable afforestation and developing countries
Abstract
Despite the growing focus on afforestation as an alternative land use option for economic development, little of note has been achieved in terms of afforestation uptake in developing countries whilst it remains trivialized in the Zimbabwean context. As a result, afforestation has failed to proffer anticipated gains resulting in subsequent low uptake of afforestation as an alternative land use for economic development. The challenges of promoting afforestation has cast the limelight on the issue of afforestation policy. In light of the dynamic challenges sweeping across the global afforestation environment, policy has been hailed as the missing piece of the jigsaw towards the promotion of afforestation uptake. However, despite a plethora of studies on afforestation a close analysis of the focus of many studies conducted to date reveal the existence of a gap in knowledge on the role of policy in the viability of sustainable afforestation as an alternative land use for economic development in Zimbabwe. Therefore, this study using a qualitative research methodology sought to assess the role of policy in the viability of sustainable afforestation as an alternative land use for economic development in Zimbabwe. A close analysis of the spectrum of the critical resources for successful afforestation zeros in on three challenges that are critical to optimizing uptake of afforestation. These are, in order of importance, security of land tenure or land rights, access to extension services and access to investment capital. Dealing with these three challenges is pivotal to meeting policy targets for adoption of afforestation as an alternative land use for economic development. Zimbabwe has vast pieces of land with potential for afforestation initiatives which remain underutilised and untapped. The current study highlighted some of the current policy issues that militates against the rate of adoption of afforestation. The study was situated in Mashonaland West, there is need to do further studies on the same issue to have a holistic understanding of the challenges hindering afforestation in Zimbabwe. There is also need on how best these policy related strategies can be adopted to optimise the adoption of afforestation not only Zimbabwe but across developing countries.
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References
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Chazdon, R. L., Lindenmayer, D., Guariguata, M. R., Crouzeilles, R., Benayas, J. M. R., &Chavero, E. L. (2020). Fostering natural forest regeneration on former agricultural land through economic and policy interventions. Environmental Research Letters, 15(4), 043002.
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Danquah JA (2015) Analysis of factors influencing farmers’ voluntary participation in reforestation programme in Ghana. For, Trees Livelihoods 24(3):176–189
Deb S (2020) Traditional Agroforestry Systems of Northeast India.In Socioeconomic and Eco-biological Dimensions in Resource use and Conservation (pp. 103–115). Springer, Cham
Deuffic, P., & Ni Dhubhain, A. (2020).Invisible losses. What a catastrophe does to forest owners’ identity and trust in afforestation programmes. SociologiaRuralis, 60(1), 104-128.
Deziel, C (2018). Environmental Problems Caused by Deforestation of Tropical Rain Forests,Sciencing.
Dhakal A, Cockfield G, Maraseni TN (2015) Deriving an index of adoption rate and assessing factors affecting adoption of an agroforestry-based farming system in Dhanusha District, Nepal. AgroforSyst 89(4):645–661
Dhakal A, Rai RK (2020) Who Adopts Agroforestry in a Subsistence Economy?—Lessons from the Terai of Nepal. Forests 11(5):565
Dhubháin, Á. N., Maguire, K., &Farrelly, N. (2010).The harvesting behaviour of Irish private forest owners. Forest Policy and Economics, 12(7), 513-517.
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FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization.(2015). The State of World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture.Managing Systems at Risk. FAO, Rome.
Fleming A, O’grady AP, Mendham D, England J, Mitchell P, Moroni M, Lyons A (2019).Understanding the values behind farmer perceptions of trees on farms to increase adoption of agroforestry in Australia.Agron Sustain Dev 39(1):1–11
Jara-Rojas R, Russy S, Roco L, Fleming-Muñoz D, Engler A (2020). Factors affecting the adoption of agroforestry practices: insights from silvopastoral systems of Colombia. Forests 11(6):648
Jha S, Kaechele H, Sieber S (2021). Factors influencing the adoption of agroforestry by smallholder farmer households in Tanzania: Case studies from Morogoro and Dodoma. Land Use Policy 103:105308
Kim, G., Kim, J., Ko, Y., Eyman, O. T. G., Chowdhury, S., Adiwal, J., ...& Son, Y. (2021). How do nature-based solutions improve environmental and socio-economic resilience to achieve the sustainable development goals? Reforestation and afforestation cases from the republic of korea. Sustainability, 13(21), 12171.
Laakkonen, A., Zimmerer, R., Kähkönen, T., Hujala, T., Takala, T., &Tikkanen, J. (2018).Forest owners' attitudes toward pro-climate and climate-responsive forest management. Forest Policy and Economics, 87, 1-10.
Li R, Zheng H, Zhang C, Keeler B, Samberg LH, Li C, Ouyang Z (2020) Rural household livelihood and tree plantation dependence in the central mountainous region of Hainan Island, China: implications for poverty alleviation. Forests 11(2):248
Luoranen J, Saksa T, Lappi J (2018) Seedling, planting site and weather factors affecting the success of autumn plantings in Norway spruce and Scots pine seedlings. For EcolManag 419:79–90
Minang, P.A. (2018). Values, Incentives and Ecosystem Services in Environmentalism. In Rethinking Environmentalism:Linking Justice, Sustainability, and Diversity; Strüngmann Forum Reports; Lele, S., Brondizio, E.S., Byrne, J.,Mace, G.M., Martinez-Alier, J., Eds.; MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2018; Volume 23
NíDhubháin, Á Maguire, K., &Farrelly, N., (2010). The harvesting behaviour of Irish forest owners. Forest Policy and Economics 12: 513‒517.
Nkonya E., N. Gerber, P. Baumgartner, J. von Braun, A. De Pinto, V. Graw, E. Kato, J. Kloos, &T. Walter. (2011). The Economics of Land Degradation.Toward an Integrated Global Assessment.Development Economics and Policy Series #6. InternationalerVerlag der Wissenschaften, Frankfurt
Nyikadzino, B.; Chitakira, M.; Muchuru, S. Rainfall and runoff trend analysis in the Limpopo river basin using the Mann Kendall statistic. Phys. Chem. Earth Parts A/B/C 2020, 117, 102870.
Ofori E, Griffin T, Yeager E (2020). Duration analyses of precision agriculture technology adoption: what’s influencing farmers’ time-to-adoption decisions? Agri Finance Rev 80:647–664
Pérez-Silos, I., Álvarez-Martínez, J. M., &Barquín, J. (2021). Large-scale afforestation for ecosystem service provisioning: learning from the past to improve the future. Landscape Ecology, 36, 3329-3343.
Romanova O, Gold MA, Hall DM, Hendrickson MK (2022). Perspectives of Agroforestry Practitioners on Agroforestry Adoption: Case Study of Selected SARE Participants. Rural Sociology. https://doi.org/10.1111/ruso.12463
Ryan, M. &O'Donoghue, C. (2016).Heterogeneous Economic and Behavioural Drivers of the Farm Afforestation Decision. Conference paper presented at 18th BIOECON conference. Kings College, Cambridge.
Ryan, M. (2016).Economics of farm afforestation in Ireland. Unpublished PhD thesis.Discipline of Economics.Hardiman Library. NUI, Galway.
Ryan, M., O’Donoghue, C., & Phillips, H. (2016).Modelling financially optimal afforestation and forest management scenarios using a bio-economic model. Open Journal of Forestry, 6(01), 19.
Sohngen, B. (2020). Climate change and forests. Annual Review of Resource Economics, 12, 23-43.
TafereSM,&Nigussie ZA (2018) The adoption of introduced agroforestry innovations: determinants of a high adoption rate–a case-study from Ethiopia. For, Trees Livelihoods 27(3):175–194
Tahvonen, O., Pihlainen, S., &Niinimäki, S. (2013). On the economics of optimal timber production in boreal Scots pine stands. Can. J. For. Res. 43(8), 719-730.
Teng X, Liu F, & Chiu Y (2021).The change in energy and carbon emissions efficiency after afforestation in China by applying a modified dynamic SBM model. Energy 2021; 216: 119301.
Tian, L., Zhang, B., Chen, S., Wang, X., Ma, X., & Pan, B. (2022). Large‐scale afforestation enhances precipitation by intensifying the atmospheric water cycle over the Chinese Loess Plateau. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 127(16), e2022JD036738.
Tian, L.; Fu, W.; Tao, Y.; Li, M.Y.; Wang, L. (2022). Dynamics of the alpine timberline and its response to climate change in the Hengduanmountains over the period 1985–2015. Ecol. Indic. 135, 108589.
Tian, X., Sohngen, B., Baker, J., Ohrel, S., & Fawcett, A. A. (2018). Will US forests continue to be a carbon sink?. Land Economics, 94(1), 97-113.
Ullah A, Zeb A, Saqib SE, Kächele H (2022). Constraints to agroforestry diffusion under the Billion Trees Afforestation Project (BTAP), Pakistan: policy recommendations for 10-BTAP. Environ SciPollut Res 29:68757–68775
Wilson, A. (2015). A guide to phenomenological research.Nursing Standard (2014+), 29(34), 38.
Wilson, M. H., & Lovell, S. T. (2016). Agroforestry—The next step in sustainable and resilient agriculture. Sustainability, 8(6), 574.
Zada M, Zada S, Ali M, Zhang Y, Begum A, Han H, Araya-Castillo L (2022) Contribution of Small-Scale Agroforestry to Local Economic Development and Livelihood Resilience: Evidence from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province (KPK), Pakistan. Land 11(1):71
Zada M, Zada S, Ali M, Zhang Y, Begum A, Han H, Vega-Muñoz A (2021) Development of local economy through the strengthening of small-medium-sized forest enterprises in KPK, Pakistan. Sustainability 13(19):10502
Zeb A, Armstrong GW, Hamann A (2019) Forest conversion by the indigenous Kalasha of Pakistan: A household level analysis of socioeconomic drivers. Glob Environ Change 59:102004
Angel, P et al (2017). The Appalachian regional reforestation initiative. Available at: https://www.osmre.gov/programs/arri.
Arimi K, Omoare A (2021) Motivating cocoa farmers to adopt agroforestry practices for mitigating climate change. Renew Agric Food Syst 36(6):599–604
Assmuth, A. &Tahvonen, O. (2015).Continuous cover forestry vs. clearcuts with optimal carbon storage. Paper presented at BioEcon 2015, Cambridge, England,
Ayana, A.N.; Vandenabeele, N.; &Arts, B. (2015).Performance of participatory forest management in Ethiopia:institutional arrangement versus local practices. Crit. Policy Stud., 11, 19–38.
Bastin, J-F et al (2019).The global tree restoration potential, Science.Vol 365, issue 6448. Bjork Fredrik (2004). ‘Institutional theory: A new perspective for research into IS/IT security in organizations’. In International Conference on System Sciences. Hawaii. Available at: http://csdl2.computer.org/comp/proceedings/hicss/2004/2056/07/2 05670186b.pdf
Beyene AD, Mekonnen A, Randall B, Deribe R (2019) Household level determinants of agroforestry practices adoption in rural Ethiopia. For, Trees Livelihoods 28(3):194–213
Bharadwaj B, Pullar D, To LS, Leary J (2021) Why firewood? Exploring the co-benefits, socio-ecological interactions and indigenous knowledge surrounding cooking practice in rural Nepal. Energy Res SocSci 75:101932
Biland M, Zeb A, Ullah A, Kaechele H (2021) Why Do Households Depend on the Forest for Income? Analysis of Factors Influencing Households’ Decision-Making Behaviors. Sustainability 13(16):9419
Cafer AM, Rikoon JS (2018) Adoption of new technologies by smallholder farmers: the contributions of extension, research institutes, cooperatives, and access to cash for improving tef production in Ethiopia. Agric Hum values 35(3):685–699
Chazdon, R. L., Lindenmayer, D., Guariguata, M. R., Crouzeilles, R., Benayas, J. M. R., &Chavero, E. L. (2020). Fostering natural forest regeneration on former agricultural land through economic and policy interventions. Environmental Research Letters, 15(4), 043002.
Chigumira, G., Dube, C., Mudzonga, E., Chiwunze, G., &Matsika, W. (2019). Enhancing Natural Resources Management in Zimbabwe (No. 2374-2020-962).
Chimhou, A, Manjengwa J &Feresu, F. (2010).Moving Forward in Zimbabwe: Reducing Poverty and Promoting Growth, IES, UZ, Harare.
Danquah JA (2015) Analysis of factors influencing farmers’ voluntary participation in reforestation programme in Ghana. For, Trees Livelihoods 24(3):176–189
Deb S (2020) Traditional Agroforestry Systems of Northeast India.In Socioeconomic and Eco-biological Dimensions in Resource use and Conservation (pp. 103–115). Springer, Cham
Deuffic, P., & Ni Dhubhain, A. (2020).Invisible losses. What a catastrophe does to forest owners’ identity and trust in afforestation programmes. SociologiaRuralis, 60(1), 104-128.
Deziel, C (2018). Environmental Problems Caused by Deforestation of Tropical Rain Forests,Sciencing.
Dhakal A, Cockfield G, Maraseni TN (2015) Deriving an index of adoption rate and assessing factors affecting adoption of an agroforestry-based farming system in Dhanusha District, Nepal. AgroforSyst 89(4):645–661
Dhakal A, Rai RK (2020) Who Adopts Agroforestry in a Subsistence Economy?—Lessons from the Terai of Nepal. Forests 11(5):565
Dhubháin, Á. N., Maguire, K., &Farrelly, N. (2010).The harvesting behaviour of Irish private forest owners. Forest Policy and Economics, 12(7), 513-517.
Duesberg, S., Dhubháin, Á. N., & O’Connor, D. (2014).Assessing policy tools for encouraging farm afforestation in Ireland. Land Use Policy, 38, 194-203.
Duguma, L.A, Atela, J; Minang, P.A; Ayana, A.N; Gizachew, B; &Nzy, J.M. (2019). Deforestation and Forest Degradation asan Environmental Behavior: Unpacking RealitiesShaping Community Actions, Land
Dumont ES, Bonhomme S, Pagella TF, Sinclair FL (2019) Structured stakeholder engagement leads to development of more diverse and inclusive agroforestry options. ExpAgric 55(S1):252–274
Dupraz, C., Lawson, G. J., Lamersdorf, N., Papanastasis, V. P., Rosati, A., & Ruiz-Mirazo, J. (2018). Temperate agroforestry: the European way. In Temperate agroforestry systems (pp. 98-152). Wallingford UK: CAB International.
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization.(2015). The State of World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture.Managing Systems at Risk. FAO, Rome.
Fleming A, O’grady AP, Mendham D, England J, Mitchell P, Moroni M, Lyons A (2019).Understanding the values behind farmer perceptions of trees on farms to increase adoption of agroforestry in Australia.Agron Sustain Dev 39(1):1–11
Jara-Rojas R, Russy S, Roco L, Fleming-Muñoz D, Engler A (2020). Factors affecting the adoption of agroforestry practices: insights from silvopastoral systems of Colombia. Forests 11(6):648
Jha S, Kaechele H, Sieber S (2021). Factors influencing the adoption of agroforestry by smallholder farmer households in Tanzania: Case studies from Morogoro and Dodoma. Land Use Policy 103:105308
Kim, G., Kim, J., Ko, Y., Eyman, O. T. G., Chowdhury, S., Adiwal, J., ...& Son, Y. (2021). How do nature-based solutions improve environmental and socio-economic resilience to achieve the sustainable development goals? Reforestation and afforestation cases from the republic of korea. Sustainability, 13(21), 12171.
Laakkonen, A., Zimmerer, R., Kähkönen, T., Hujala, T., Takala, T., &Tikkanen, J. (2018).Forest owners' attitudes toward pro-climate and climate-responsive forest management. Forest Policy and Economics, 87, 1-10.
Li R, Zheng H, Zhang C, Keeler B, Samberg LH, Li C, Ouyang Z (2020) Rural household livelihood and tree plantation dependence in the central mountainous region of Hainan Island, China: implications for poverty alleviation. Forests 11(2):248
Luoranen J, Saksa T, Lappi J (2018) Seedling, planting site and weather factors affecting the success of autumn plantings in Norway spruce and Scots pine seedlings. For EcolManag 419:79–90
Minang, P.A. (2018). Values, Incentives and Ecosystem Services in Environmentalism. In Rethinking Environmentalism:Linking Justice, Sustainability, and Diversity; Strüngmann Forum Reports; Lele, S., Brondizio, E.S., Byrne, J.,Mace, G.M., Martinez-Alier, J., Eds.; MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2018; Volume 23
NíDhubháin, Á Maguire, K., &Farrelly, N., (2010). The harvesting behaviour of Irish forest owners. Forest Policy and Economics 12: 513‒517.
Nkonya E., N. Gerber, P. Baumgartner, J. von Braun, A. De Pinto, V. Graw, E. Kato, J. Kloos, &T. Walter. (2011). The Economics of Land Degradation.Toward an Integrated Global Assessment.Development Economics and Policy Series #6. InternationalerVerlag der Wissenschaften, Frankfurt
Nyikadzino, B.; Chitakira, M.; Muchuru, S. Rainfall and runoff trend analysis in the Limpopo river basin using the Mann Kendall statistic. Phys. Chem. Earth Parts A/B/C 2020, 117, 102870.
Ofori E, Griffin T, Yeager E (2020). Duration analyses of precision agriculture technology adoption: what’s influencing farmers’ time-to-adoption decisions? Agri Finance Rev 80:647–664
Pérez-Silos, I., Álvarez-Martínez, J. M., &Barquín, J. (2021). Large-scale afforestation for ecosystem service provisioning: learning from the past to improve the future. Landscape Ecology, 36, 3329-3343.
Romanova O, Gold MA, Hall DM, Hendrickson MK (2022). Perspectives of Agroforestry Practitioners on Agroforestry Adoption: Case Study of Selected SARE Participants. Rural Sociology. https://doi.org/10.1111/ruso.12463
Ryan, M. &O'Donoghue, C. (2016).Heterogeneous Economic and Behavioural Drivers of the Farm Afforestation Decision. Conference paper presented at 18th BIOECON conference. Kings College, Cambridge.
Ryan, M. (2016).Economics of farm afforestation in Ireland. Unpublished PhD thesis.Discipline of Economics.Hardiman Library. NUI, Galway.
Ryan, M., O’Donoghue, C., & Phillips, H. (2016).Modelling financially optimal afforestation and forest management scenarios using a bio-economic model. Open Journal of Forestry, 6(01), 19.
Sohngen, B. (2020). Climate change and forests. Annual Review of Resource Economics, 12, 23-43.
TafereSM,&Nigussie ZA (2018) The adoption of introduced agroforestry innovations: determinants of a high adoption rate–a case-study from Ethiopia. For, Trees Livelihoods 27(3):175–194
Tahvonen, O., Pihlainen, S., &Niinimäki, S. (2013). On the economics of optimal timber production in boreal Scots pine stands. Can. J. For. Res. 43(8), 719-730.
Teng X, Liu F, & Chiu Y (2021).The change in energy and carbon emissions efficiency after afforestation in China by applying a modified dynamic SBM model. Energy 2021; 216: 119301.
Tian, L., Zhang, B., Chen, S., Wang, X., Ma, X., & Pan, B. (2022). Large‐scale afforestation enhances precipitation by intensifying the atmospheric water cycle over the Chinese Loess Plateau. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 127(16), e2022JD036738.
Tian, L.; Fu, W.; Tao, Y.; Li, M.Y.; Wang, L. (2022). Dynamics of the alpine timberline and its response to climate change in the Hengduanmountains over the period 1985–2015. Ecol. Indic. 135, 108589.
Tian, X., Sohngen, B., Baker, J., Ohrel, S., & Fawcett, A. A. (2018). Will US forests continue to be a carbon sink?. Land Economics, 94(1), 97-113.
Ullah A, Zeb A, Saqib SE, Kächele H (2022). Constraints to agroforestry diffusion under the Billion Trees Afforestation Project (BTAP), Pakistan: policy recommendations for 10-BTAP. Environ SciPollut Res 29:68757–68775
Wilson, A. (2015). A guide to phenomenological research.Nursing Standard (2014+), 29(34), 38.
Wilson, M. H., & Lovell, S. T. (2016). Agroforestry—The next step in sustainable and resilient agriculture. Sustainability, 8(6), 574.
Zada M, Zada S, Ali M, Zhang Y, Begum A, Han H, Araya-Castillo L (2022) Contribution of Small-Scale Agroforestry to Local Economic Development and Livelihood Resilience: Evidence from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province (KPK), Pakistan. Land 11(1):71
Zada M, Zada S, Ali M, Zhang Y, Begum A, Han H, Vega-Muñoz A (2021) Development of local economy through the strengthening of small-medium-sized forest enterprises in KPK, Pakistan. Sustainability 13(19):10502
Zeb A, Armstrong GW, Hamann A (2019) Forest conversion by the indigenous Kalasha of Pakistan: A household level analysis of socioeconomic drivers. Glob Environ Change 59:102004
Published
2023-12-30
How to Cite
Mhaka, I. (2023). POLICY AND POLICY ISSUES IN SUSTAINABLE AFFORESTATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A CASE OF ZIMBABWE. GPH-International Journal of Social Science and Humanities Research, 6(11), 282-309. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10444338
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