AIR QUALITY AND MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION AROUND CEMENT DEPOTS IN PORT HARCOURT, NIGERIA: AN INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT OF PARTICULATE, CHEMICAL, AND BIOAEROSOL POLLUTION
Keywords:
Cement depots; Air Quality Index (AQI); Particulate matter (PM₂.₅, PM₁₀); Sulphur oxides (SOₓ); Microbial bioaerosols
Abstract
Air pollution from cement operations is a growing health concern in rapidly industrialising cities. While particulate and gaseous pollutants are routinely assessed, microbial bioaerosols remain overlooked despite respiratory risks. This study integrated chemical, physical, and microbial parameters with Air Quality Index (AQI) evaluation around cement depots in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. PM₂.₅, PM₁₀, NOₓ, SOₓ, and CO were measured at four cement depots (Lafarge Rukpokwu, Lafarge Iriebe, Dangote Eleme, Dangote Eliozu) and a control site using a Temtop M2000 detector. Microbes were sampled by passive sedimentation and identified morphologically and biochemically. AQI values were calculated using U.S. EPA breakpoints, with clustering and ranking analyses applied to compare sites. PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀ exceeded WHO limits at all depots, peaking at Eleme (55.0 µg/m³; 112.0 µg/m³). NOₓ reached 102.1 µg/m³ at Eleme, while SOₓ peaked at 209.5 µg/m³ at Eliozu, over five times the guideline. CO exceeded limits only at Eleme (4.8 mg/m³). Microbial loads were highest at Rukpokwu (233 CFU/m³ bacteria; 35 CFU/m³ fungi). Isolates included Enterobacter, Serratia, Bacillus, Acinetobacter, Aspergillus, and Fusarium, some of which may be opportunistic pathogens. AQI ranged from 101.4 (Iriebe) to 261.9 (Eliozu), while the control (33.3) remained “Good.” Clustering grouped Eleme and Eliozu by SOₓ-driven pollution, and Rukpokwu and Iriebe by particulates and NOₓ. Ranking confirmed Eliozu and Eleme as the most polluted sites. Cement depots in Port Harcourt degrade air quality, with PM, NOₓ, and SOₓ consistently exceeding WHO limits and AQI above 240 at Eleme and Eliozu (“Very Unhealthy”). Combined with high microbial contamination, these findings highlight the urgent need for stricter emission controls and integrated monitoring that includes bioaerosols to protect public health.
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References
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Adeniran, J. A., Yusuf, R. O., Fakinle, B. S., & Sonibare, J. A. (2019). Air quality assessment and modelling of pollutant emissions from a major cement plant complex in Nigeria. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 10(1), 257-266.
Adewale, A., Sunkanmi, O. D., & Ayodeji, O. (2021). Cement Dust Air Pollution and Its Effects on Human Health in Ewekoro Local Government Area, Ogun State, Nigeria. Journal of Environment and Earth Science, 11(11), 18-28.
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Akinfolarin, O. M., Obunwo, C. C., & Boisa, N. (2018). Air quality characteristics of emerging industrial areas in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Journal of Chemical Society of Nigeria, 43(1), 7-14.
Andrew, R. M. (2019). Global CO2 emissions from cement production, 1928–2018. Earth System Science Data, 11(4), 1675-1710.
Awos, A., Thompson, S., Adedeji, O., Zvomuya, F., & Zhang, Q. (2024). Monitoring of Air Quality for Particulate Matter (PM2.5, PM10) and Heavy Metals Proximate to a Cement Factory in Ewekoro, Nigeria. Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection, 12(10), 152-180.
Azhar, U., & Shahid, S. (2024). Construction Pre and Post Analyses of Air Quality Parameters (PM2.5, PM10, and CO) and Noise Levels: A Case Study of Lal Shahbaz Qalandar Underpass, Lahore, Pakistan. Civil Engineering Infrastructures Journal, 57(2), 357-370.
Bărbulescu, A., & Hosen, K. (2025). Cement Industry Pollution and Its Impact on the Environment and Population Health: A Review. Toxics, 13(7), 587.
Barnett, H.L., & Hunter, B.B. (1998). Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi (4th ed.). St. Paul, MN: APS Press.
Chen, D., Liu, X., Han, J., Jiang, M., Xu, Y., & Xu, M. (2018). Measurements of particulate matter concentration by the light scattering method: Optimisation of the detection angle. Fuel Processing Technology, 179, 124-134.
Da Silva, N., Taniwaki, M. H., Junqueira, V. C., Silveira, N., Okazaki, M. M., & Gomes, R. A. R. (2018). Microbiological examination methods of food and water: a laboratory manual. CRC Press.
Debnath, S. K., Debnath, M., & Srivastava, R. (2022). Opportunistic etiological agents causing lung infections: emerging need to transform lung-targeted delivery. Heliyon, 8(12), e12640.
EPA. (2018). Technical Assistance Document for the Reporting of Daily Air Quality – the Air Quality Index (AQI) (EPA 454/B-18-007). Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Air Quality Assessment Division, Research Triangle Park, NC. Retrieved from https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi/P100W5UG.PDF? [Accessed, 20 June 2024].
Etim, M. A., Babaremu, K., Lazarus, J., & Omole, D. (2021). Health risk and environmental assessment of cement production in Nigeria. Atmosphere, 12(9), 1111.
Evuti, A. M., Silas, S. S., Amarachukwu, E., & Stephen, Y. (2023). A review of the operational challenges in the cement industry in Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Planning & Sustainability, 8(2), 32-52.
Feng, D. Y., Zhou, J. X., Li, X., Wu, W. B., Zhou, Y. Q., & Zhang, T. T. (2022). Differentiation between Acinetobacter baumannii colonisation and infection and the clinical outcome prediction by infection in the lower respiratory tract. Infection and Drug Resistance, 5401-5409.
Fuehner, T., Ernst, D., Greer, M., Gottlieb, J., & Welte, T. (2019). Opportunistic infections in the immunocompromised host. In ERS Handbook Respiratory Medicine (pp. 400-410). The European Respiratory Society.
Gonzalez-Martin, C. (2019). Airborne infectious microorganisms. Encyclopedia of Microbiology, 52(28), 52–60.
Guillamet, C. V., Le Hsu, J., Dhillon, G., & Guillamet, R. V. (2018). Pulmonary infections in immunocompromised hosts: clinical. Journal of Thoracic Imaging, 33(5), 295-305.
Gutarowska, B., Szulc, J., Nowak, A., Otlewska, A., Okrasa, M., Jachowicz, A., & Majchrzycka, K. (2018). Dust at various workplaces - Microbiological and toxicological threats. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(5), 877.
Haas, D., Galler, H., Fritz, C., Hasler, C., Habib, J., & Reinthaler, F. F. (2017). Comparative study of impaction and sedimentation in an aerosol chamber using defined fungal spore and bacterial concentrations. PloSOne, 12(12), e0187039.
Hashim, H. R., Abed Ali, W. J., & Abdulhussein Jawad, Z. (2024). Calculating the Percentage of Air Pollution with Fungi Through Rainwater. Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, 21(3), 19-25.
Holt, J. G., Krieg, N. R., Sneath, P. H. A., Staley, J. T., & Williams, S. T. (Eds.). (1994). Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology (9th ed.). Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Huang, H., Chen, B., Liu, G., Ran, J., Lian, X., Huang, X., & Huang, Z. (2018). A multi-centre study on the risk factors of infection caused by multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. BMC Infectious Diseases, 18, 1-6.
Jyethi, D. S. (2016). Air quality: Global and regional emissions of particulate matter, SOx, and NOx. In Plant responses to air pollution (pp. 5-19). Singapore: Springer Singapore.
Khajeamiri, Y., Sharifi, S., Moradpour, N., & Khajeamiri, A. (2021). A review on the effect of air pollution and exposure to PM, NO2, O3, SO2, CO and heavy metals on viral respiratory infections. Journal of Air Pollution and Health, 5(4), 243-258.
Larone, D.H. (2011). Medically Important Fungi: A Guide to Identification (5th ed.). Washington, DC: ASM Press.
Li, M., Zhang, M., Du, C., & Chen, Y. (2020). Study on the spatial spillover effects of cement production on air pollution in China. Science of The Total Environment, 748, 141421.
Mannucci, P. M., & Franchini, M. (2017). Health effects of ambient air pollution in developing countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(9), 1048.
Newell, K., Kartsonaki, C., Lam, K. B. H., & Kurmi, O. (2018). Cardiorespiratory health effects of gaseous ambient air pollution exposure in low and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environmental Health, 17(1), 41.
Newell, K., Kartsonaki, C., Lam, K. B. H., & Kurmi, O. P. (2017). Cardiorespiratory health effects of particulate ambient air pollution exposure in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Planetary Health, 1(9), e368-e380.
Noda, J., Tomizawa, S., Takahashi, K., Morimoto, K., & Mitarai, S. (2022). Air pollution and airborne infection with mycobacterial bioaerosols: a potential attribution of soot. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 19(2), 717-726.
Nwogu, F. U., Ubuoh, E. A., Kanu, C., Ogbaji, E. E., & Nwawuike, N. (2025). Effect of cement production processes on dry atmospheric chemistry in South-South Nigeria. Environmental Sciences Europe, 37(1), 90.
Ogodo, A. C., Agwaranze, D. I., Daji, M., & Aso, R. E. (2022). Microbial techniques and methods: Basic techniques and microscopy. In Analytical Techniques in Biosciences (pp. 201-220). Academic Press.
Oriasi, M., Rowland, E. D., & Harry, A. A. (2022). Spatial distribution of black soot and its health effects in Port Harcourt Metropolis, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences, 4(01), 32-46.
Panagoda, S. S., Ranasinghe, H., Perera, V., Sandunika, I., Tilanka, G., Alwis, S., & Dilka, S. (2023). Cement manufacturing process and its environmental impact. Journal of Research, Technology and Engineering, 4(3), 161-168.
Pompilio, A., & Di Bonaventura, G. (2020). Ambient air pollution and respiratory bacterial infections, a troubling association: epidemiology, underlying mechanisms, and future challenges. Critical Reviews in Microbiology, 46(5), 600-630.
Rais, N.N.M., & Kamil, N.A.F.M. (2022). Distribution of Air Pollution in Parit Raja Focused on Particulate Matter 2.5 (PM2.5) Caused by Industrial Activities. Recent Trends in Civil Engineering and Built Environment, 3(1), 1774-1781.
Rizi, K. S., Hasanzade, S., Soleimanpour, S., Youssefi, M., Jamehdar, S. A., Ghazvini, K., & Farsiani, H. (2021). Phenotypic and molecular characterisation of antimicrobial resistance in clinical species of Enterobacter, Serratia, and Hafnia in Northeast Iran. Gene Reports, 25, 101352.
Roche, M. Y. (2023). Built for net-zero: analysis of long-term greenhouse gas emission pathways for the Nigerian cement sector. Journal of Cleaner Production, 383, 135446.
Satlin, M.J., Jacobs, S.E., Walsh, T.J. (2019). Aspergillosis. In: Safdar, A. (eds) Principles and Practice of Transplant Infectious Diseases. Springer, New York, NY.
Sowunmi, K., Shoga, S., Adewumi, O. M., Oriyomi, F. A., & Sowunmi, L. (2020). The Physiological and Microbiological Characteristics of Cement Dust Polluted Soil Around Lafarge Cement Industry. Research. Square, 1, 1-16.
Uzor, O. F., Ogbuagu, J. O., Arinze, R. U., & Okeke, A. P. (2025). Air Quality Index Analysis of Dangote Cement in Obajana, Kogi State, Nigeria. Journal of Global Ecology and Environment, 21(3), 242-252.
Venkata, S.C., & Reddy, U. (2023). Impacts of cement industry air pollutants on the environment and satellite data applications for air quality monitoring and management. Environmental Monitoring Assessment, 195(840), 840.
Viani, I., Colucci, M. E., Pergreffi, M., Rossi, D., Veronesi, L., Bizzarro, A., & Pasquarella, C. (2020). Passive air sampling: the use of the index of microbial air contamination. Acta Biomedica of University of Parma, 91(3), 92.
WHO. (2021a). Air pollution is responsible for 6.7 million premature deaths every year. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/teams/environment-climate-change-and-health/air-quality-and-health/health-impacts/types-of-pollutants. [Accessed 21st August 2025].
WHO. (2021b). WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines: Particulate Matter (PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀), Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, Sulphur Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide. Geneva: World Health Organisation. ISBN 978‑92‑4‑003422‑8 (electronic); 290 pp.
Yakubu, O. H. (2018). Particle (soot) pollution in Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria—double air pollution burden? Understanding and tackling potential environmental public health impacts. Environments, 5, 2.
Ziaei, S., Sarkhosh, M., Saeidi, M., & Sarkhoshkalat, M. (2025). Public health implications of bacterial and fungal bioaerosol concentrations in outdoor air. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 22706.
Published
2026-10-12
How to Cite
OMIREH, KENNETH, C., STANLEY, H. O., UGWUOHA, E., & AMAH, V. (2026). AIR QUALITY AND MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION AROUND CEMENT DEPOTS IN PORT HARCOURT, NIGERIA: AN INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT OF PARTICULATE, CHEMICAL, AND BIOAEROSOL POLLUTION. GPH-International Journal of Applied Science, 9(9), 12-27. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.23315744
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