KNOWLEDGE OF ASTHENOPIA AND AMMETROPIC STATUS AMONG FRESHERS: OPTOMETRIST VISIBILITY IN UNIVERSITY HEALTH CENTER
Keywords:
spherical ocular aberration, cylindrical aberration, refractive error, lens prescription.
Abstract
The society register a large population of person who has never visited the clinic and most of these subjects suffer asthenopia due to either uncorrected spherical or astigmatic condition. This can lead to other damaging visual disorders like amblyopia and strabismus. Most tertiary institutions seem unaware of these indices and the dangers associated; therefore, do not take deliberate steps in the prevention and correction of these disorders leading to a rise in visual impairment among students. This study wished to close the gap between knowledge of asthenopia and its indices in tertiary institutions. The research adopted an incidental random sampling technique and recruited 258 subjects from the target population. Snellen Visual Acuity Test, Slit Acuity Test and Near Point of Convergence (NPC) were performed on the student and findings recorded. Furthermore, questionnaires were administered to subjects for assessment their level of personal refractive error status awareness. Research observed that the percentage of students who were presumed to have spherical ocular aberrations were 18.2% and those without were 81.8%. Cylindrical ocular aberrations were 15.1% and those without cylindrical ocular aberrations were 84.9%. This study also predicted that students with spectacle prescription (8.5%) are less than students with aberrations (24.8%). Furthermore, study showed a weak negative relationship between spherical and cylindrical aberration when compared to NPC (r ₌ -0.116). Conclusively, this study observed that a greater number of this population were ignorant of their refractive status and therefore, study wish to advocate for a proper ocular health screening on-admission and, periodic medical fitness check which must include a comprehensive eye examination with treatment plans including lens prescription coverage.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
American Optometric Association. (1997). Optometric clinical practice guideline: Care of the patient with hyperopia. St. Louis: American Optometric Association.
Artal, P. (Ed.). (2017). Handbook of Visual Optics: Fundamentals and eye optics. CRC Press.
Bach, M., Reuter, M., &Lagrèze, W. A. (2016). Comparison of two visual acuity tests in school enrolment examinations: Tumbling E test versus Freiburg visual acuity test. Der Ophthalmologe: Zeitschrift der DeutschenOphthalmologischen Gesellschaft, 113(8), 684-689.
Bope, E. T., & Kellerman, R. D. (2015). Conn's current therapy 2016. Elsevier Health Sciences.
Bornet, A. (2021). Crowding and the importance of grouping and segmentation processes in human vision (No. THESIS). EPFL.
Castagno, V. D., Fassa, A. G., Carret, M. L. V., Vilela, M. A. P., &Meucci, R. D. (2014). Hyperopia: a meta-analysis of prevalence and a review of associated factors among school-aged children. BMC ophthalmology, 14(1), 1-19.
Charman, W. N., & Heron, G. (1988). Fluctuations in accommodation: a review. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 8(2), 153-164.
Chen, A. H., O'Leary, D. J., & Howell, E. R. (2000). Near visual function in young children. Part I: Near point of convergence. Part II: Amplitude of accommodation. Part III: Near heterophoria. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 20(3), 185-198.
Coleman, D. J. (1970). Unified model for accommodative mechanism. American journal of ophthalmology, 69(6), 1063-1079.
Denniston, A., & Murray, P. (Eds.). (2014). Oxford handbook of ophthalmology. OUP Oxford.
Descartes, R. (1972). L'Homme (Treatise on Man) (TS Hall, Trans.).
Descartes, R. (1972). Treatise of man. Harvard University Press.
Dong, L., Kang, Y. K., Li, Y., Wei, W. B., & Jonas, J. B. (2020). Prevalence and time trends of myopia in children and adolescents in China: a systemic review and meta-analysis. Retina, 40(3), 399-411.
Drexler, W., Baumgartner, A., Findl, O., Hitzenberger, C. K., &Fercher, A. F. (1997). Biometric investigation of changes in the anterior eye segment during accommodation. Vision Research, 37(19), 2789-2800.
Duane, A. (1922). Studies in monocular and binocular accommodation with their clinical applications. American Journal of Ophthalmology, 5(11), 865-877.
Dubbelman, M., Van der Heijde, G. L., & Weeber, H. A. (2005). Change in shape of the aging human crystalline lens with accommodation. Vision research, 45(1), 117-132.
Ezelum, C., Razavi, H., Sivasubramaniam, S., Gilbert, C. E., Murthy, G. V., Entekume, G., & Abubakar, T. (2011). Refractive error in Nigerian adults: prevalence, type, and spectacle coverage. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science, 52(8), 5449-5456.
Fisher, R. F. (1983). Is the vitreous necessary for accommodation in man?. The British journal of ophthalmology, 67(3), 206.
Foster, P. A., & Jiang, Y. (2014). Epidemiology of myopia. Eye, 28(2), 202-208.
Fricke, T. R., Tahhan, N., Resnikoff, S., Papas, E., Burnett, A., Ho, S. M., ... & Naidoo, K. S. (2018). Global prevalence of presbyopia and vision impairment from uncorrected presbyopia: systematic review, meta-analysis, and modelling. Ophthalmology, 125(10), 1492-1499.
Friedman, N. J., Kaiser, P. K., & Pineda II, R. (2019). The Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary Illustrated Manual of Ophthalmology E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences.
Garner, L. F., & Yap, M. K. (1997). Changes in ocular dimensions and refraction with accommodation. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 17(1), 12-17.
Grosvenor, T. (2007). Primary care optometry (5: e upplagan). St. Louis, Missouri: Butterworth Heinemann Elsevier.
Harvey, E. M. (2009). Development and treatment of astigmatism-related amblyopia. Optometry and vision science: official publication of the American Academy of Optometry, 86(6), 634.
Heron, G., &Charman, W. N. (2004). Accommodation as a function of age and the linearity of the response dynamics. Vision research, 44(27), 3119-3130.
Hobday, R. (2016). Myopia and daylight in schools: a neglected aspect of public health?. Perspectives in public health, 136(1), 50-55.
Holden, B. A., Fricke, T. R., Wilson, D. A., Jong, M., Naidoo, K. S., Sankaridurg, P., ... & Resnikoff, S. (2016). Global prevalence of myopia and high myopia and temporal trends from 2000 through 2050. Ophthalmology, 123(5), 1036-1042.
Holden, B., Sankaridurg, P., Smith, E., Aller, T., Jong, M., & He, M. (2014). Myopia, an underrated global challenge to vision: where the current data takes us on myopia control. Eye, 28(2), 142-146.
Holden, B., Sankaridurg, P., Smith, E., Aller, T., Jong, M., & He, M. (2014). Myopia, an underrated global challenge to vision: where the current data takes us on myopia control. Eye, 28(2), 142-146.
Johnson, C. A. (1976). Effects of luminance and stimulus distance on accommodation and visual resolution. JOSA, 66(2), 138-142.
Kaimbo, D. K. W. (2012). Astigmatism–definition, etiology, classification, diagnosis and non-surgical treatment. Astigmatism-Optics, Physiology and Management.
Khurana, A. K. (2008). Errors of refraction and binocular optical defects. Theory And Practice Of Optics And Refraction, 460.
Kulp, M. T., Ciner, E., Maguire, M., Moore, B., Pentimonti, J., Pistilli, M., ... & VIP-HIP Study Group. (2016). Uncorrected hyperopia and preschool early literacy: results of the vision in preschoolers–hyperopia in preschoolers (VIP-HIP) study. Ophthalmology, 123(4), 681-689.
Leibowitz, H. W., & Owens, D. A. (1978). New evidence for the intermediate position of relaxed accommodation. DocumentaOphthalmologica, 46(1), 133-147.
Liu, Y. J., Wang, Z. Q., Song, L. P., & Mu, G. G. (2005). An anatomically accurate eye model with a shell-structure lens. Optik, 116(6), 241-246.
Liu, Y. J., Wang, Z. Q., Song, L. P., & Mu, G. G. (2005). An anatomically accurate eye model with a shell-structure lens. Optik, 116(6), 241-246.
Lockhart, T. E., & Shi, W. (2010). Effects of age on dynamic accommodation. Ergonomics, 53(7), 892-903.
M shahidi, A., Sampson, G. P., Pritchard, N., Edwards, K., Russell, A., Malik, R. A., & Efron, N. (2010). Exploring retinal and functional markers of diabetic neuropathy. Clinical and Experimental Optometry, 93(5), 309-323.
Michaeline, I., Sheriff, A., & Bimbo, A. (2016). Paediatric refractive errors in an eye clinic in Osogbo, Nigeria. Ethiopian journal of health sciences, 26(2), 147-154.
Mozayan, E., & Lee, J. K. (2014). Update on astigmatism management. Current opinion in ophthalmology, 25(4), 286-290.
Muceniece, L., Markevica, I., &Laganovska, G. (2020). Corneal Perforation Self-Healing with an Iris Plug in the Cornea. Case Reports in Ophthalmology, 11(2), 330-335.
Mutti, D. O., Enlow, N. L., & Mitchell, G. L. (2001). Accommodation and induced with-the-rule astigmatism in emmetropes. Optometry and vision science, 78(1), 6-7.
Naheed Chaudhry, A. (2022). Study of visual accessibility in an optical establishment (Bachelor's thesis, UniversitatPolitècnica de Catalunya).
Pan, C. W., Dirani, M., Cheng, C. Y., Wong, T. Y., & Saw, S. M. (2015). The age-specific prevalence of myopia in Asia: a meta-analysis. Optometry and vision science, 92(3), 258-266.
Pan, C. W., Ramamurthy, D., & Saw, S. M. (2012). Worldwide prevalence and risk factors for myopia. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 32(1), 3-16.
Plainis, S., Charman, W. N., &Pallikaris, I. G. (2014). The physiologic mechanism of accommodation. Cataract & Refractive Surgery Today Europe, 4, 23-29.
Plainis, S., Ginis, H. S., &Pallikaris, A. (2005). The effect of ocular aberrations on steady-state errors of accommodative response. Journal of Vision, 5(5), 7-7.
Plainis, S., Plevridi, E., &Pallikaris, I. G. (2009). Comparison of the ocular wavefront aberration between pharmacologically‐induced and stimulus‐driven accommodation. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 29(3), 272-280.
Praveen, M. R., Vasavada, A. R., Jani, U. D., Trivedi, R. H., & Choudhary, P. K. (2008). Prevalence of cataract type in relation to axial length in subjects with high myopia and emmetropia in an Indian population. American journal of ophthalmology, 145(1), 176-181.
Ramamurthy, D., Lin Chua, S. Y., & Saw, S. M. (2015). A review of environmental risk factors for myopia during early life, childhood and adolescence. Clinical and Experimental Optometry, 98(6), 497-506.
Read, S. A., Collins, M. J., & Carney, L. G. (2007). A review of astigmatism and its possible genesis. Clinical and Experimental Optometry, 90(1), 5-19.
Read, S. A., Collins, M. J., Woodman, E. C., & Cheong, S. H. (2010). Axial length changes during accommodation in myopes and emmetropes. Optometry and Vision Science, 87(9), 656-662.
Read, S. A., Collins, M. J., Woodman, E. C., & Cheong, S. H. (2010). Axial length changes during accommodation in myopes and emmetropes. Optometry and Vision Science, 87(9), 656-662.
Rohen, J. W. (1979). Scanning electron microscopic studies of the zonular apparatus in human and monkey eyes. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science, 18(2), 133-144.
Rohrschneider, K. (2004). Determination of the location of the fovea on the fundus. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science, 45(9), 3257-3258.
Rosenfield, M., Ciuffreda, K. J., Hung, G. K., & Gilmartin, B. (1993). Tonic accommodation: a review I. Basic aspects. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 13(3), 266-283.
Saw, S. M., Katz, J., Schein, O. D., Chew, S. J., & Chan, T. K. (1996). Epidemiology of myopia. Epidemiologic reviews, 18(2), 175-187.
Shermin, T., Islam, M. N., Akter, S., Elahi, S. S. B., Abdullah, W. M., & Al Mamun, K. A. (2017, February). Virtual Eye Doc: An Android based app in Bengali language for eye health & vision examination. In 2017 International Conference on Electrical, Computer and Communication Engineering (ECCE) (pp. 815-819). IEEE.
Strasburger, H. (2020). Seven myths on crowding and peripheral vision. i-Perception, 11(3), 2041669520913052.
Vargas, V., Radner, W., Allan, B. D., Reinstein, D. Z., Dick, H. B., &Alió, J. L. (2019). Methods for the study of near, intermediate vision, and accommodation: an overview of subjective and objective approaches. survey of ophthalmology, 64(1), 90-100.
Vos, T., Barber, R. M., Bell, B., Bertozzi-Villa, A., Biryukov, S., Bolliger, I., ... &Brugha, T. S. (2015). Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. The lancet, 386(9995), 743-800.
Williams, D. R., & Walters, S. (2017). Possibilities in physiological optics. In Handbook of Visual Optics, Volume One (pp. 23-36). CRC Press.
Xiong, S., Sankaridurg, P., Naduvilath, T., Zang, J., Zou, H., Zhu, J., ... & Xu, X. (2017). Time spent in outdoor activities in relation to myopia prevention and control: a meta analysis and systematic review. Acta ophthalmologica, 95(6), 551-566.
Young, T. (1801). II. The Bakerian Lecture. On the mechanism of the eye. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, (91), 23-88
Artal, P. (Ed.). (2017). Handbook of Visual Optics: Fundamentals and eye optics. CRC Press.
Bach, M., Reuter, M., &Lagrèze, W. A. (2016). Comparison of two visual acuity tests in school enrolment examinations: Tumbling E test versus Freiburg visual acuity test. Der Ophthalmologe: Zeitschrift der DeutschenOphthalmologischen Gesellschaft, 113(8), 684-689.
Bope, E. T., & Kellerman, R. D. (2015). Conn's current therapy 2016. Elsevier Health Sciences.
Bornet, A. (2021). Crowding and the importance of grouping and segmentation processes in human vision (No. THESIS). EPFL.
Castagno, V. D., Fassa, A. G., Carret, M. L. V., Vilela, M. A. P., &Meucci, R. D. (2014). Hyperopia: a meta-analysis of prevalence and a review of associated factors among school-aged children. BMC ophthalmology, 14(1), 1-19.
Charman, W. N., & Heron, G. (1988). Fluctuations in accommodation: a review. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 8(2), 153-164.
Chen, A. H., O'Leary, D. J., & Howell, E. R. (2000). Near visual function in young children. Part I: Near point of convergence. Part II: Amplitude of accommodation. Part III: Near heterophoria. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 20(3), 185-198.
Coleman, D. J. (1970). Unified model for accommodative mechanism. American journal of ophthalmology, 69(6), 1063-1079.
Denniston, A., & Murray, P. (Eds.). (2014). Oxford handbook of ophthalmology. OUP Oxford.
Descartes, R. (1972). L'Homme (Treatise on Man) (TS Hall, Trans.).
Descartes, R. (1972). Treatise of man. Harvard University Press.
Dong, L., Kang, Y. K., Li, Y., Wei, W. B., & Jonas, J. B. (2020). Prevalence and time trends of myopia in children and adolescents in China: a systemic review and meta-analysis. Retina, 40(3), 399-411.
Drexler, W., Baumgartner, A., Findl, O., Hitzenberger, C. K., &Fercher, A. F. (1997). Biometric investigation of changes in the anterior eye segment during accommodation. Vision Research, 37(19), 2789-2800.
Duane, A. (1922). Studies in monocular and binocular accommodation with their clinical applications. American Journal of Ophthalmology, 5(11), 865-877.
Dubbelman, M., Van der Heijde, G. L., & Weeber, H. A. (2005). Change in shape of the aging human crystalline lens with accommodation. Vision research, 45(1), 117-132.
Ezelum, C., Razavi, H., Sivasubramaniam, S., Gilbert, C. E., Murthy, G. V., Entekume, G., & Abubakar, T. (2011). Refractive error in Nigerian adults: prevalence, type, and spectacle coverage. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science, 52(8), 5449-5456.
Fisher, R. F. (1983). Is the vitreous necessary for accommodation in man?. The British journal of ophthalmology, 67(3), 206.
Foster, P. A., & Jiang, Y. (2014). Epidemiology of myopia. Eye, 28(2), 202-208.
Fricke, T. R., Tahhan, N., Resnikoff, S., Papas, E., Burnett, A., Ho, S. M., ... & Naidoo, K. S. (2018). Global prevalence of presbyopia and vision impairment from uncorrected presbyopia: systematic review, meta-analysis, and modelling. Ophthalmology, 125(10), 1492-1499.
Friedman, N. J., Kaiser, P. K., & Pineda II, R. (2019). The Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary Illustrated Manual of Ophthalmology E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences.
Garner, L. F., & Yap, M. K. (1997). Changes in ocular dimensions and refraction with accommodation. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 17(1), 12-17.
Grosvenor, T. (2007). Primary care optometry (5: e upplagan). St. Louis, Missouri: Butterworth Heinemann Elsevier.
Harvey, E. M. (2009). Development and treatment of astigmatism-related amblyopia. Optometry and vision science: official publication of the American Academy of Optometry, 86(6), 634.
Heron, G., &Charman, W. N. (2004). Accommodation as a function of age and the linearity of the response dynamics. Vision research, 44(27), 3119-3130.
Hobday, R. (2016). Myopia and daylight in schools: a neglected aspect of public health?. Perspectives in public health, 136(1), 50-55.
Holden, B. A., Fricke, T. R., Wilson, D. A., Jong, M., Naidoo, K. S., Sankaridurg, P., ... & Resnikoff, S. (2016). Global prevalence of myopia and high myopia and temporal trends from 2000 through 2050. Ophthalmology, 123(5), 1036-1042.
Holden, B., Sankaridurg, P., Smith, E., Aller, T., Jong, M., & He, M. (2014). Myopia, an underrated global challenge to vision: where the current data takes us on myopia control. Eye, 28(2), 142-146.
Holden, B., Sankaridurg, P., Smith, E., Aller, T., Jong, M., & He, M. (2014). Myopia, an underrated global challenge to vision: where the current data takes us on myopia control. Eye, 28(2), 142-146.
Johnson, C. A. (1976). Effects of luminance and stimulus distance on accommodation and visual resolution. JOSA, 66(2), 138-142.
Kaimbo, D. K. W. (2012). Astigmatism–definition, etiology, classification, diagnosis and non-surgical treatment. Astigmatism-Optics, Physiology and Management.
Khurana, A. K. (2008). Errors of refraction and binocular optical defects. Theory And Practice Of Optics And Refraction, 460.
Kulp, M. T., Ciner, E., Maguire, M., Moore, B., Pentimonti, J., Pistilli, M., ... & VIP-HIP Study Group. (2016). Uncorrected hyperopia and preschool early literacy: results of the vision in preschoolers–hyperopia in preschoolers (VIP-HIP) study. Ophthalmology, 123(4), 681-689.
Leibowitz, H. W., & Owens, D. A. (1978). New evidence for the intermediate position of relaxed accommodation. DocumentaOphthalmologica, 46(1), 133-147.
Liu, Y. J., Wang, Z. Q., Song, L. P., & Mu, G. G. (2005). An anatomically accurate eye model with a shell-structure lens. Optik, 116(6), 241-246.
Liu, Y. J., Wang, Z. Q., Song, L. P., & Mu, G. G. (2005). An anatomically accurate eye model with a shell-structure lens. Optik, 116(6), 241-246.
Lockhart, T. E., & Shi, W. (2010). Effects of age on dynamic accommodation. Ergonomics, 53(7), 892-903.
M shahidi, A., Sampson, G. P., Pritchard, N., Edwards, K., Russell, A., Malik, R. A., & Efron, N. (2010). Exploring retinal and functional markers of diabetic neuropathy. Clinical and Experimental Optometry, 93(5), 309-323.
Michaeline, I., Sheriff, A., & Bimbo, A. (2016). Paediatric refractive errors in an eye clinic in Osogbo, Nigeria. Ethiopian journal of health sciences, 26(2), 147-154.
Mozayan, E., & Lee, J. K. (2014). Update on astigmatism management. Current opinion in ophthalmology, 25(4), 286-290.
Muceniece, L., Markevica, I., &Laganovska, G. (2020). Corneal Perforation Self-Healing with an Iris Plug in the Cornea. Case Reports in Ophthalmology, 11(2), 330-335.
Mutti, D. O., Enlow, N. L., & Mitchell, G. L. (2001). Accommodation and induced with-the-rule astigmatism in emmetropes. Optometry and vision science, 78(1), 6-7.
Naheed Chaudhry, A. (2022). Study of visual accessibility in an optical establishment (Bachelor's thesis, UniversitatPolitècnica de Catalunya).
Pan, C. W., Dirani, M., Cheng, C. Y., Wong, T. Y., & Saw, S. M. (2015). The age-specific prevalence of myopia in Asia: a meta-analysis. Optometry and vision science, 92(3), 258-266.
Pan, C. W., Ramamurthy, D., & Saw, S. M. (2012). Worldwide prevalence and risk factors for myopia. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 32(1), 3-16.
Plainis, S., Charman, W. N., &Pallikaris, I. G. (2014). The physiologic mechanism of accommodation. Cataract & Refractive Surgery Today Europe, 4, 23-29.
Plainis, S., Ginis, H. S., &Pallikaris, A. (2005). The effect of ocular aberrations on steady-state errors of accommodative response. Journal of Vision, 5(5), 7-7.
Plainis, S., Plevridi, E., &Pallikaris, I. G. (2009). Comparison of the ocular wavefront aberration between pharmacologically‐induced and stimulus‐driven accommodation. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 29(3), 272-280.
Praveen, M. R., Vasavada, A. R., Jani, U. D., Trivedi, R. H., & Choudhary, P. K. (2008). Prevalence of cataract type in relation to axial length in subjects with high myopia and emmetropia in an Indian population. American journal of ophthalmology, 145(1), 176-181.
Ramamurthy, D., Lin Chua, S. Y., & Saw, S. M. (2015). A review of environmental risk factors for myopia during early life, childhood and adolescence. Clinical and Experimental Optometry, 98(6), 497-506.
Read, S. A., Collins, M. J., & Carney, L. G. (2007). A review of astigmatism and its possible genesis. Clinical and Experimental Optometry, 90(1), 5-19.
Read, S. A., Collins, M. J., Woodman, E. C., & Cheong, S. H. (2010). Axial length changes during accommodation in myopes and emmetropes. Optometry and Vision Science, 87(9), 656-662.
Read, S. A., Collins, M. J., Woodman, E. C., & Cheong, S. H. (2010). Axial length changes during accommodation in myopes and emmetropes. Optometry and Vision Science, 87(9), 656-662.
Rohen, J. W. (1979). Scanning electron microscopic studies of the zonular apparatus in human and monkey eyes. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science, 18(2), 133-144.
Rohrschneider, K. (2004). Determination of the location of the fovea on the fundus. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science, 45(9), 3257-3258.
Rosenfield, M., Ciuffreda, K. J., Hung, G. K., & Gilmartin, B. (1993). Tonic accommodation: a review I. Basic aspects. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 13(3), 266-283.
Saw, S. M., Katz, J., Schein, O. D., Chew, S. J., & Chan, T. K. (1996). Epidemiology of myopia. Epidemiologic reviews, 18(2), 175-187.
Shermin, T., Islam, M. N., Akter, S., Elahi, S. S. B., Abdullah, W. M., & Al Mamun, K. A. (2017, February). Virtual Eye Doc: An Android based app in Bengali language for eye health & vision examination. In 2017 International Conference on Electrical, Computer and Communication Engineering (ECCE) (pp. 815-819). IEEE.
Strasburger, H. (2020). Seven myths on crowding and peripheral vision. i-Perception, 11(3), 2041669520913052.
Vargas, V., Radner, W., Allan, B. D., Reinstein, D. Z., Dick, H. B., &Alió, J. L. (2019). Methods for the study of near, intermediate vision, and accommodation: an overview of subjective and objective approaches. survey of ophthalmology, 64(1), 90-100.
Vos, T., Barber, R. M., Bell, B., Bertozzi-Villa, A., Biryukov, S., Bolliger, I., ... &Brugha, T. S. (2015). Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. The lancet, 386(9995), 743-800.
Williams, D. R., & Walters, S. (2017). Possibilities in physiological optics. In Handbook of Visual Optics, Volume One (pp. 23-36). CRC Press.
Xiong, S., Sankaridurg, P., Naduvilath, T., Zang, J., Zou, H., Zhu, J., ... & Xu, X. (2017). Time spent in outdoor activities in relation to myopia prevention and control: a meta analysis and systematic review. Acta ophthalmologica, 95(6), 551-566.
Young, T. (1801). II. The Bakerian Lecture. On the mechanism of the eye. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, (91), 23-88
Published
2024-05-01
How to Cite
Peggy Ejiro, O., Ofioritse Ogheneyoma, O., Zeinab Blessing, O.-O., Esther Eguono, C., ifeanyichukwu victor, A., & Ebimobo-ere, E. E. (2024). KNOWLEDGE OF ASTHENOPIA AND AMMETROPIC STATUS AMONG FRESHERS: OPTOMETRIST VISIBILITY IN UNIVERSITY HEALTH CENTER. GPH-International Journal of Biological & Medicine Science, 7(04), 01-13. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11099067
Section
Articles
Copyright (c) 2024 OHWIN Peggy Ejiro
Author(s) and co-author(s) jointly and severally represent and warrant that the Article is original with the author(s) and does not infringe any copyright or violate any other right of any third parties, and that the Article has not been published elsewhere. Author(s) agree to the terms that the GPH Journal will have the full right to remove the published article on any misconduct found in the published article.
